>> From a study published in the Swimming Science Bulletin. Authored by Brent S. Rushall & John Marsden.
"The question of whether (young athletes) should specialize in particular sports at an early age have been asked for many years. The evidence now seems to support programming activities that develop overall capacities rather than specialized functions while the young athlete is growing."
The BEST and MOST EFFICIENT means of developing a future champion is through slow progression and multilateral means.
"If resistance training is to be done with children and young adolescents, exercises should involve sub-maximal loads, such as one’s own bodyweight, light dumbbells, weighted bags and/or medicine balls. Sophisticated and restrictive weight exercises, particularly on machines, are not ideal for children".
Trainers or coaches who advocate machine-based training for young athletes are simply not thinking straight.
"All sports require high degree of skill for superior performance. The major emphasis of a (youth athletic) training program should be skill excellence. For skills to be developed, learning should occur in non-fatigued states… It is advisable to schedule auxiliary training sessions either after a (sport) session or at some time that allows complete recovery from its execution so that no residual fatigue is carried over."
Learning how to create appropriate training sessions is crucial to working with young athletes. If you are forced to have the technical practice AND the training session within the same day (as is typical), make sure that the training session comes AFTER practice. This keeps the body and CNS rested and for skill acquisition and demonstration during practice.
>>Neurological stats on learning and neuropsychological explanation as to why multilateral development is crucial.
Look at it from the easiest possible angle… Do you know anyone from another country? What happens to family’s who move to a foreign land, but can’t speak the language? Let’s use an Italian family moving to Canada. Eventually, everyone learns to speak English, but, the young kids will learn to speak it accent-free while the parents, no matter what they try, will ALWAYS have a slight or even pronounced accent. Why?
The answer can be summed up in one word… Plasticity. Plasticity in this context is defined as the ability to be flexible or adapt. The human brain is a structure LOADED with plasticity during its developmental stages, but loses the ability to adapt as we age. Every skill imaginable (athletic, cognitive, language acquisition), is governed by plasticity… There is literally a cap or critical time frame in which skills must be learnt in order to ever be performed optimally. Due to the laws of plasticity, a 45 year old Italian immigrant will never pick up English the way his or her 5 year old son will.
Application to sport and athletics? If you don’t expose kids to it early, they will NEVER be able to develop it optimally.
Flexibility and Mobility
What is the difference between Flexibility and Mobility?
Flexibility can have two definitions:
1.) The ability of muscle to lengthen during passive movements.
2.) Range of motion about a joint and surrounding musculature during passive movements.
Mobility can also have two ways of being defined. The main definition is the state of being in motion. But this state of motion can be looked at within certain joints (subtalar mobility) or as a physical whole (moving from one position into the next during a run).
Are both important to young athletes or is one more important than the other?
This is a great question. Both are important for the older athlete (ages 14-18+) as athletes within this age group tend to show more restrictions with both flexibility and mobility, often times once you take care of the flexibility then you improve mobility. But with the younger athlete (ages 13 and under) I wouldn’t place much importance on either one unless there has been a certain injury that limits each.
Are there different kinds of Flexibility, or is ‘bending over to touch my toes and stretch my hammy’ what all young athletes should be doing?
There are seven different ways of going about flexibility:
• Ballistic stretching
• Dynamic stretching
• Active stretching
• Passive (or relaxed) stretching
• Static stretching
• Isometric stretching
• PNF stretching
I use dynamic stretching (more like an active movement series of stretches) with most of my youth athletes from as young as 6 years old.
When should young athletes train Flexibility?
As I stated, I use dynamic stretching with most of my young athletes. But my goal is not to improve flexibility with the younger athletes because I feel that this is not appropriate. If anything, most children are too flexible until their bones lengthen. I would have athletes start to work with flexibility around 14 years of age for males, 12-13 for females. But again I feel that at that point in time dynamic movements and warm-up periods are ideal for flexibility.
When should they train Mobility?
Global Mobility should be an ongoing part of your everyday programming along with movement preparation.
What is the single greatest mistake or myth people make when it comes to Flexibility training?
There are actually two mistakes or myths that come to mind. One is that everyone needs to do static stretches to avoid sustaining a muscle injury. To date there has not been any substantial evidence through research or scientific literature that suggests stretching prevents injuries.
The second part that is more of a mistake than anything is having children perform static stretches before athletic contests or games. The contractile properties of a child’s musculoskeletal system does not work well with static stretching. But knowing this and then seeing groups of young athletes stretching the way that their coaches did “back in the day” just does not make any sense. And yet this is still taking place in every youth athletic league throughout this country. Clearly we still have some work to do to make changes.
Flexibility can have two definitions:
1.) The ability of muscle to lengthen during passive movements.
2.) Range of motion about a joint and surrounding musculature during passive movements.
Mobility can also have two ways of being defined. The main definition is the state of being in motion. But this state of motion can be looked at within certain joints (subtalar mobility) or as a physical whole (moving from one position into the next during a run).
Are both important to young athletes or is one more important than the other?
This is a great question. Both are important for the older athlete (ages 14-18+) as athletes within this age group tend to show more restrictions with both flexibility and mobility, often times once you take care of the flexibility then you improve mobility. But with the younger athlete (ages 13 and under) I wouldn’t place much importance on either one unless there has been a certain injury that limits each.
Are there different kinds of Flexibility, or is ‘bending over to touch my toes and stretch my hammy’ what all young athletes should be doing?
There are seven different ways of going about flexibility:
• Ballistic stretching
• Dynamic stretching
• Active stretching
• Passive (or relaxed) stretching
• Static stretching
• Isometric stretching
• PNF stretching
I use dynamic stretching (more like an active movement series of stretches) with most of my youth athletes from as young as 6 years old.
When should young athletes train Flexibility?
As I stated, I use dynamic stretching with most of my young athletes. But my goal is not to improve flexibility with the younger athletes because I feel that this is not appropriate. If anything, most children are too flexible until their bones lengthen. I would have athletes start to work with flexibility around 14 years of age for males, 12-13 for females. But again I feel that at that point in time dynamic movements and warm-up periods are ideal for flexibility.
When should they train Mobility?
Global Mobility should be an ongoing part of your everyday programming along with movement preparation.
What is the single greatest mistake or myth people make when it comes to Flexibility training?
There are actually two mistakes or myths that come to mind. One is that everyone needs to do static stretches to avoid sustaining a muscle injury. To date there has not been any substantial evidence through research or scientific literature that suggests stretching prevents injuries.
The second part that is more of a mistake than anything is having children perform static stretches before athletic contests or games. The contractile properties of a child’s musculoskeletal system does not work well with static stretching. But knowing this and then seeing groups of young athletes stretching the way that their coaches did “back in the day” just does not make any sense. And yet this is still taking place in every youth athletic league throughout this country. Clearly we still have some work to do to make changes.
Tim’s Non-negotiables
1. Constantly educate yourself and apply what you learn. Kind of self-explanatory really. It's a pity people choose not to learn.
2. Listen to your body. Sometimes it's the only one who knows what you need. It's a great teacher but are you a good student?
3. Eat for health not pleasure. No, this doesn't mean you can't enjoy food, it means don't be a pig. It means have a healthy relationship with food. Don't reward, motivate or medicate with food.
4. Move your body. This isn’t just about structured exercise; it's about living a life with more movement in it. Compared with our great grandparents, the majority of us expend about 800 less calories per day simply because we spend so much time lying and sitting. Increase your incidental and occupational activity.
5. Manage your stress. Along with sleep, stress is the one thing that can have a dramatic (negative) impact on your physical health in a very short time. That and getting hit by a truck. We now know that there is a huge relationship between mental and emotional stress and physical disease. If you don't manage it, it will manage you.
6. Sleep. Kind of important. Zzzzz.
7. Stay well hydrated. Being as your body's about two thirds water, you might want to stay hydrated. A surprising number of people (about 60-70%) are dehydrated on a regular basis. Constipation, headaches, lethargy, mood swings, inability to concentrate and reduced physical ability (endurance, strength, co-ordination) are some of the potential outcomes of dehydration. If you're not a fan of water, eat foods with high water content (fruit, vegetables).
8. Find happiness. There's a lot of evidence to suggest a very strong correlation between happiness and longevity. Find what (who) makes you happy and hang the heck on.
2. Listen to your body. Sometimes it's the only one who knows what you need. It's a great teacher but are you a good student?
3. Eat for health not pleasure. No, this doesn't mean you can't enjoy food, it means don't be a pig. It means have a healthy relationship with food. Don't reward, motivate or medicate with food.
4. Move your body. This isn’t just about structured exercise; it's about living a life with more movement in it. Compared with our great grandparents, the majority of us expend about 800 less calories per day simply because we spend so much time lying and sitting. Increase your incidental and occupational activity.
5. Manage your stress. Along with sleep, stress is the one thing that can have a dramatic (negative) impact on your physical health in a very short time. That and getting hit by a truck. We now know that there is a huge relationship between mental and emotional stress and physical disease. If you don't manage it, it will manage you.
6. Sleep. Kind of important. Zzzzz.
7. Stay well hydrated. Being as your body's about two thirds water, you might want to stay hydrated. A surprising number of people (about 60-70%) are dehydrated on a regular basis. Constipation, headaches, lethargy, mood swings, inability to concentrate and reduced physical ability (endurance, strength, co-ordination) are some of the potential outcomes of dehydration. If you're not a fan of water, eat foods with high water content (fruit, vegetables).
8. Find happiness. There's a lot of evidence to suggest a very strong correlation between happiness and longevity. Find what (who) makes you happy and hang the heck on.
Why The Tempo Works...
Tempo running improves a crucial physiological variable for running success: our metabolic fitness. "Most runners have trained their cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen to the muscles, "but they haven't trained their bodies to use that oxygen once it arrives. Tempo runs do just that by teaching the body to use oxygen for metabolism more efficiently."
How? By increasing your lactate threshold (LT), or the point at which the body fatigues at a certain pace. During tempo runs, lactate and hydrogen ions--by-products of metabolism--are released in. The ions make the muscles acidic, eventually leading to fatigue. The better trained you become, the higher you push your "threshold," meaning your muscles become better at using these byproducts. The result is less-acidic muscles (that is, muscles that haven't reached their new "threshold"), so they keep on contracting, letting you run farther and faster.
...If Done Properly
But to garner this training effect, you've got to put in enough time at the right intensity--which like those of many runners, are too short and too slow. "You need to get the hydrogen ions in the muscles for a sufficient length of time for the muscles to become adept at using them," . Typically, 20 minutes is sufficient, or 4 to 5 K if your goal is general fitness. Runners tackling longer distances should do longer tempo runs during their peak training weeks: 7 to 8 for the 10-K, 10 to 14 for the half-marathon, and 17 to 22 for the Marathon
How should tempo pace feel. "It's what I call 'comfortably hard,'". "You know you're working, but you're not racing. At the same time, you'd be happy if you could slow down."
You'll be even happier if you make tempo running a part of your weekly training regimen, and get results that make you feel like a Kenyan--if not quite as fast.
How? By increasing your lactate threshold (LT), or the point at which the body fatigues at a certain pace. During tempo runs, lactate and hydrogen ions--by-products of metabolism--are released in. The ions make the muscles acidic, eventually leading to fatigue. The better trained you become, the higher you push your "threshold," meaning your muscles become better at using these byproducts. The result is less-acidic muscles (that is, muscles that haven't reached their new "threshold"), so they keep on contracting, letting you run farther and faster.
...If Done Properly
But to garner this training effect, you've got to put in enough time at the right intensity--which like those of many runners, are too short and too slow. "You need to get the hydrogen ions in the muscles for a sufficient length of time for the muscles to become adept at using them," . Typically, 20 minutes is sufficient, or 4 to 5 K if your goal is general fitness. Runners tackling longer distances should do longer tempo runs during their peak training weeks: 7 to 8 for the 10-K, 10 to 14 for the half-marathon, and 17 to 22 for the Marathon
How should tempo pace feel. "It's what I call 'comfortably hard,'". "You know you're working, but you're not racing. At the same time, you'd be happy if you could slow down."
You'll be even happier if you make tempo running a part of your weekly training regimen, and get results that make you feel like a Kenyan--if not quite as fast.
Speed Training
Speed Training should not produce fatigue in your young athletes.
Again, it's a 'fact' that every Coach and Trainer seems to
understand from a theoretical perspective, but seldom implements
properly in a practical setting.
Your work-rest ratios when programming for speed must be set
in such a way that your young athletes are fully recovered before
the next set commences.
Anything less than complete recovery means that CNS is not
firing with optimal capacity and you are, in fact, training lactic
acid threshold instead.
There are two ways to ensure that your young athletes are
recovered well between sets:
1) Make the 'work' portion of your speed training days low volume.
Rather than running 100 or 200 meters, work at acceleration in
10 and 20 meter bursts. That limited work output will require a
much smaller window of recovery.
2) Script a work-rest relationship of roughly 1:3 in terms of time.
Recovery is largely dependent on the condition of your young
athletes but is also very individually specific. Be wary of this
individual specification and be sure to 'watch' your athletes in
between sets for signs of full recovery.
How to Warm-Up Your Young Athletes
This may be among the most controversial and misunderstood topics within the entire youth development industry.
Warming up for sport or activity is, in essence, preparing the body for the task it is about to do. This includes increasing body temperature and improving the efficiency of the nervous system (which controls movement). Warm-ups can generally be classified into two categories:
1. General -- Incorporates a broad assortment of movements in order to prepare the body as a systemic unit. Arousal of an appropriate 'mental attitude' for the upcoming competition or practice is a valuable component of this phase.
2. Specific -- Involves precise actions or exercises relating to the particular sport. This serves as a more accurate neuromuscular preparation for the movements and tasks about to take place in the game or practice.
There are two misleading notions regarding warm-up design that are generally believed to be true by many coaches, trainer and parents:
1. Aerobic activity is the best choice as a warm-up exercise.
2. Static stretching must precede all workouts, practices or games in order to reduce the potential for injury.
The 'aerobic activity' phenomenon is a wide spread myth to say the least. Soccer, football and baseball coaches often send their athletes on 5 -- 10 minute jogs around the field prior to the start of a game. Likewise, Personal Trainers will habitually have their clients 'warm-up' on a stationary bike or treadmill prior to a strength-training workout. This type of pre-event warm-up equates to dogmatic practice without any analysis of what the warm-up is meant to supply. Specifically, a warm-up must elevate body/muscle temperature to a certain point, increase both respiration and blood flow as well as enhance nervous system activity thereby heightening coordination and movement aptitude -- this must all be done to level at which the athlete is not fatigued but prepared.
With aerobic-based warm-ups, energy reserves may be diminished and the ability to exhibit speed, strength and motor control lessened. This is quite problematic considering most sports and workout programs involve either displaying speed and strength abilities or are designed to enhance speed and strength capacities. More over, if a given training session is geared towards upper body strength exercises, how does running on a treadmill or riding a stationary bike prepare the body for the specific neuromuscular demands about to be placed on it?
With static stretching, it must be understood that any type of prolonged, held stretch can actually CAUSE injury. The concept of flexibility as a whole is largely misunderstood in contemporary sport performance (and fitness for that matter). The notion that static flexibility exercises are necessary as a pre-event habit in order to both prevent injury and prepare the body for movement are two primary incorrect 'facts'.
Firstly, static flexibility exercises can disturb the stability of joints to a point that may actually serve to increase the potential for injury. Acting on nerve transmissions from the brain and spinal cord, muscles serve to move joints through various ranges of motion in order to produce a desired task. Understanding the laws of human motion, their exists a delicate balance between mobility and stability within the context of any movement. A muscle's job then (in conjunction with both ligaments and tendons), is to produce movement (mobility) while protecting a given joint from 'over-movement' (stability). 'Over-movement' refers to uncontrolled motion that exceeds the natural limits of a joints capacity - this could result in acute trauma of varying degrees of severity. This mobility-stability interplay can be disrupted if statically held stretches are performed prior to a period of physical exertion.
The other primary factor to consider is that static exercises of any kind cannot be judiciously thought of as precursors to a movement-based activity. All sports and training exercises involve movement in varying extents. Slow and easy-paced multi-directional movements, sudden bursts of speed and maximal strength efforts are all part of either sport participation or training programs. It is only sensible to prime the athlete specifically for what they are about to do -- Prepare To Move By Moving To Prepare.
In reality, understanding the concepts of warming-up for sport could be a book unto itself. How to design an efficient and functionally-sound warm-up is based on several factors including --
Type of activity
Duration of activity
Age of Athlete
Injury History
Exercise history
*Adapted from 'Facts & Fallacies of Fitness' by Dr. Mel Siff
Here is what a general warm-up may look like for an adolescent athlete (of virtually any sport):
Movements are performed for 20 -- 30 feet. Walk back to the starting point and begin again.
Jog X 3
High Knees X 3
Butt Kicks X 3
Carioca X 2 each way
Back Pedal X 3
Lunge Walk X 3
Walking Hip Thrust X 2 each leg
Walking Skips X 2 each
High Skips X 3
Skipping Bounds X 3
Tempo Runs X 3
Movement aptitude is taught and perfected during warm-ups. It is not enough to simply 'go through' the motions -- coaches and trainers must teach adequate movement habits and force productions skills.
For both lower and upper body strength training days, I will incorporate a specific movement complex prior to the actual lifting exercises:
Lower Body
These exercises are performed with a 45-pound Olympic bar without any other external loading. Each exercise is performed in sequence one after the other.
Good Morning X 5 reps
Overhead Squats X 5 reps
Back Squats X 5 reps
Front Squats X 5 reps
RDL's X 5 reps
Perform 2-3 sets
These exercises are specific preparations for the movements the athletes are about to perform and elicit a more particular neuromuscular response. Again, impeccable form is both taught and practiced during these movement complexes.
Upper Body
These exercises are performed with 3 -- 5 pound dumbbells and are performed in a sequence or circuit type manner.
Rainbow Arc X 5 (start in anatomical position, raise your arms in a rainbow-type motion until the dumbbells touch above your head)
Shoulder Press X 5 (standard)
Forward Arm Circles (standard)
Crisscross X 5 (start with dumbbells held at 90 degrees of shoulder abduction, ensuring that the scapulae are retracted and depressed. Horizontally adduct until the dumbbells reach the sagittal midline of the body. Perform a quick over-under crisscross with the dumbbells and return to the starting position)
Bent Over Fly X 5 (standard)
* Perform 2 -- 3 sets
This may be among the most controversial and misunderstood topics within the entire youth development industry.
Warming up for sport or activity is, in essence, preparing the body for the task it is about to do. This includes increasing body temperature and improving the efficiency of the nervous system (which controls movement). Warm-ups can generally be classified into two categories:
1. General -- Incorporates a broad assortment of movements in order to prepare the body as a systemic unit. Arousal of an appropriate 'mental attitude' for the upcoming competition or practice is a valuable component of this phase.
2. Specific -- Involves precise actions or exercises relating to the particular sport. This serves as a more accurate neuromuscular preparation for the movements and tasks about to take place in the game or practice.
There are two misleading notions regarding warm-up design that are generally believed to be true by many coaches, trainer and parents:
1. Aerobic activity is the best choice as a warm-up exercise.
2. Static stretching must precede all workouts, practices or games in order to reduce the potential for injury.
The 'aerobic activity' phenomenon is a wide spread myth to say the least. Soccer, football and baseball coaches often send their athletes on 5 -- 10 minute jogs around the field prior to the start of a game. Likewise, Personal Trainers will habitually have their clients 'warm-up' on a stationary bike or treadmill prior to a strength-training workout. This type of pre-event warm-up equates to dogmatic practice without any analysis of what the warm-up is meant to supply. Specifically, a warm-up must elevate body/muscle temperature to a certain point, increase both respiration and blood flow as well as enhance nervous system activity thereby heightening coordination and movement aptitude -- this must all be done to level at which the athlete is not fatigued but prepared.
With aerobic-based warm-ups, energy reserves may be diminished and the ability to exhibit speed, strength and motor control lessened. This is quite problematic considering most sports and workout programs involve either displaying speed and strength abilities or are designed to enhance speed and strength capacities. More over, if a given training session is geared towards upper body strength exercises, how does running on a treadmill or riding a stationary bike prepare the body for the specific neuromuscular demands about to be placed on it?
With static stretching, it must be understood that any type of prolonged, held stretch can actually CAUSE injury. The concept of flexibility as a whole is largely misunderstood in contemporary sport performance (and fitness for that matter). The notion that static flexibility exercises are necessary as a pre-event habit in order to both prevent injury and prepare the body for movement are two primary incorrect 'facts'.
Firstly, static flexibility exercises can disturb the stability of joints to a point that may actually serve to increase the potential for injury. Acting on nerve transmissions from the brain and spinal cord, muscles serve to move joints through various ranges of motion in order to produce a desired task. Understanding the laws of human motion, their exists a delicate balance between mobility and stability within the context of any movement. A muscle's job then (in conjunction with both ligaments and tendons), is to produce movement (mobility) while protecting a given joint from 'over-movement' (stability). 'Over-movement' refers to uncontrolled motion that exceeds the natural limits of a joints capacity - this could result in acute trauma of varying degrees of severity. This mobility-stability interplay can be disrupted if statically held stretches are performed prior to a period of physical exertion.
The other primary factor to consider is that static exercises of any kind cannot be judiciously thought of as precursors to a movement-based activity. All sports and training exercises involve movement in varying extents. Slow and easy-paced multi-directional movements, sudden bursts of speed and maximal strength efforts are all part of either sport participation or training programs. It is only sensible to prime the athlete specifically for what they are about to do -- Prepare To Move By Moving To Prepare.
In reality, understanding the concepts of warming-up for sport could be a book unto itself. How to design an efficient and functionally-sound warm-up is based on several factors including --
Type of activity
Duration of activity
Age of Athlete
Injury History
Exercise history
*Adapted from 'Facts & Fallacies of Fitness' by Dr. Mel Siff
Here is what a general warm-up may look like for an adolescent athlete (of virtually any sport):
Movements are performed for 20 -- 30 feet. Walk back to the starting point and begin again.
Jog X 3
High Knees X 3
Butt Kicks X 3
Carioca X 2 each way
Back Pedal X 3
Lunge Walk X 3
Walking Hip Thrust X 2 each leg
Walking Skips X 2 each
High Skips X 3
Skipping Bounds X 3
Tempo Runs X 3
Movement aptitude is taught and perfected during warm-ups. It is not enough to simply 'go through' the motions -- coaches and trainers must teach adequate movement habits and force productions skills.
For both lower and upper body strength training days, I will incorporate a specific movement complex prior to the actual lifting exercises:
Lower Body
These exercises are performed with a 45-pound Olympic bar without any other external loading. Each exercise is performed in sequence one after the other.
Good Morning X 5 reps
Overhead Squats X 5 reps
Back Squats X 5 reps
Front Squats X 5 reps
RDL's X 5 reps
Perform 2-3 sets
These exercises are specific preparations for the movements the athletes are about to perform and elicit a more particular neuromuscular response. Again, impeccable form is both taught and practiced during these movement complexes.
Upper Body
These exercises are performed with 3 -- 5 pound dumbbells and are performed in a sequence or circuit type manner.
Rainbow Arc X 5 (start in anatomical position, raise your arms in a rainbow-type motion until the dumbbells touch above your head)
Shoulder Press X 5 (standard)
Forward Arm Circles (standard)
Crisscross X 5 (start with dumbbells held at 90 degrees of shoulder abduction, ensuring that the scapulae are retracted and depressed. Horizontally adduct until the dumbbells reach the sagittal midline of the body. Perform a quick over-under crisscross with the dumbbells and return to the starting position)
Bent Over Fly X 5 (standard)
* Perform 2 -- 3 sets
Getting strength where you need it
Getting strength where you need it
Following the strength build-up phase, where the athlete should have built up good levels of strength and power, it is now time to enhance and channel that power into the movements and speed used in specific sports situations.
Get specific
It is important to select the most appropriate methods for your chosen sport, for the development and refinement of power, and to allow enough time for the training to take effect. This training phase should last 8-12 weeks – depending on competition needs. Remember that this type of training is the ‘icing on the cake’ and that it should follow the basic preparation and strength development phases – if maximum sports performance is to accrue.The components that need to be improved in this phase include the following:Starting strength – the ability to exert maximal forces instantly, required by a sprinter or field sport athlete, for example.Explosive strength – the rate at which the player develops force – a requirement of all athletes.Reactive strength – the combination of eccentric and concentric strength can be measured in the time it takes to reverse direction from an eccentric (braking) contraction to a concentric (accelerating) contraction.For example, rebound jumps in basketball or volleyball, or foot contacts when sprinting (this is less than 0.9 of a second at elite level). This combination of eccentric – concentric contractions is known as the stretch shortening cycle (SSC) and is the prime element of plyometric training.
What exercises are used?
The exercises used are more dynamic and specific. If the athlete only trained for maximum strength (using heavy weights) then he/she would only be capable of expressing large amounts of force and would not be able to do this quickly (they would not improve their speed of force production).
Endurance training: Peaking for a win
Specialist running journalist Andy Barber talks to top endurance coach Nick Anderson
Our understanding of the physiology of running is increasing all the time. Participation in running and large road races in the UK has risen, but winning times are not significantly improving. This implies that improved training knowledge and understanding is not reaching the training routines of most runners.
The importance of threshold training
Nick believes that runners don’t understand the need for threshold running and don’t spend enough time running at threshold – this is running at 80-85% of maximum heart rate (HRMax). Instead the coach believes that they spend a lot of less productive time running at 70-75% HRMax. And he sees too much high end anaerobic training done – quicker than 85% and up above 90% of HRMax.
Nick says the impact of these training flaws are obvious on the runners’ performance, "They are always tiring in the second half of their races, they are never fully recovered from their harder sessions, they can’t glue together interval after interval and they can’t run quick races"
Maximise your threshold
So what does Nick recommend? The coach has a strong belief in the need for running at ‘threshold’ (or the lactate turn point), the pace around which blood lactate levels go from being relatively stable to accumulating rapidly. “I believe the athletes should be doing blocks of threshold training that incorporate sessions of continuous running at threshold every week (this is because) … at threshold you don’t have such high lactate levels and the damage to the muscles is less, as the contractions are not as hard, so you can do it more regularly. If you increase the volume of work at this pace you are able to run faster for longer.”
Simple Sports Science - Training for Speed
Fast-twitch muscle fibres
Fast-twitch muscle fibres contract two to three times faster than slow-twitch muscle fibres. They have a ‘twitch rate’ of 30-70 twitches per second. These fibres are also known as white, or type II fibres. There are two types of fast-twitch fibre - Type IIa and Type IIbType IIa or ‘intermediate’ fast-twitch fibres are also termed, ‘fast oxidative glycolytic’ (FOG), because of their ability to display, when subject to the relevant training stimuli, a relatively high capacity to contract under conditions of aerobic or anaerobic energy production. This means they are relatively enduring and contribute to longer-lasting sports activities, such as 400 and 800m running, and tennis rallies.Type IIb fibres are the turbo charger muscle fibres. These fibres are also known as ‘fast glycogenolytic’ (FG) fibres. They rely, almost exclusively, on the immediate energy system to fire them up. Fast-twitch muscle fibre is thicker than slow-twitch fibre. And it’s these fibres that are primarily responsible for increases in muscle size when subject to the relevant training stimuli. Activating fast-twitch motor units is the key to improved strength, speed and power
Correctly and consistently training fast-twitch fibre is the key to improved strength, speed and power. Paradoxically, these fibres are quite lazy. They need to be prodded into action by considerable mental input. This ups the flow of electrical impulses to the motor units and literally switches them on. If you are really focused and in ‘the zone’ the flow of electrical impulses from the brain can be virtually continuous – this continuity results in target muscles being unable to relax, which in turn results in increased muscular tension and power capability. However, it should be noted that extreme levels of this ‘neuronal stimulation’ can lead to impaired sports performance. To clarify: if a golfer were to become overly aggressive in an attempt to drive the ball as far as they could from the tee, a poor stroke usually results. This is the result of increased tension and its impairment of skill.
Exercise tip of the week
Isotonic (exercises with movement) core exercises
Although these exercises are isotonic you must not swing or rock forward or backward when performing them. Instead, focus on initiating and completing the movement with your core muscles – this will ensure maximum muscle fibre recruitment. Lift and lower to a slow 3/4 count.
4) Active straight leg raise
Overview: Requires a strong static contraction of the abdominals to stabilise the lumbar spine against the load of the legs. It also requires a good active range of motion of the hamstrings.
Level: Intermediate/advanced
Muscles targeted:Rectus abdominisAbdominal wallHip flexors
Technique: Lie on your back with knees bent. Set your lumbar spine in neutral and brace your abs. Lift one leg up straight into the air and ensure that your back does not move. Lift the other leg up, again keeping your back in place (if the back cannot be stabilised during this movement, the exercise is too advanced for you, and more static transverse stability control work will be needed first). Keeping one leg in the air, slowly lower the other down to the floor. Only go as far as you can, until you feel the lumbar spine start to move. Placing your fingers under your back will help you to gauge when this happens. Keep bracing the abs and then lift your leg slowly back up. Repeat with your other leg.
Perform: 5-10 reps, alternating legs over 2-4 sets.
Focus on Upper Body Power
Upper body power is crucial for optimum performance in numerous sports. The arms and torso both generate and control power. A rugby hand off or boxing punch are obvious examples of the former, whilst the latter takes a little more explaining.
When performing a sports skill the torso acts as a transmission – controlling the forces that are generated. For example, if a sprinter does not have strong and relevantly conditioned abdominal and back muscles then power will be wasted in lateral movements as the athlete powers down the track. Additionally a weak and non-specifically conditioned core will reduce the risk of injury.
In the short video taster you’ll see a snap shot of upper body sports specific exercises aimed specifically – though not exclusively - at developing increased hitting and punching power:1) The high pulley cable chop2) The wrist curl3) The plyometric press-up 4) The medicine ball, wall chest passThese exercises display the range of conditioning exercises that can be applied to the pursuit of improved hitting, throwing and punching power, using fixed and free weights, body weight and medicine balls.You could combine the exercises into a single workout – suggested repetitions and loadings are provided for each exercise if you chose this option.
Following the strength build-up phase, where the athlete should have built up good levels of strength and power, it is now time to enhance and channel that power into the movements and speed used in specific sports situations.
Get specific
It is important to select the most appropriate methods for your chosen sport, for the development and refinement of power, and to allow enough time for the training to take effect. This training phase should last 8-12 weeks – depending on competition needs. Remember that this type of training is the ‘icing on the cake’ and that it should follow the basic preparation and strength development phases – if maximum sports performance is to accrue.The components that need to be improved in this phase include the following:Starting strength – the ability to exert maximal forces instantly, required by a sprinter or field sport athlete, for example.Explosive strength – the rate at which the player develops force – a requirement of all athletes.Reactive strength – the combination of eccentric and concentric strength can be measured in the time it takes to reverse direction from an eccentric (braking) contraction to a concentric (accelerating) contraction.For example, rebound jumps in basketball or volleyball, or foot contacts when sprinting (this is less than 0.9 of a second at elite level). This combination of eccentric – concentric contractions is known as the stretch shortening cycle (SSC) and is the prime element of plyometric training.
What exercises are used?
The exercises used are more dynamic and specific. If the athlete only trained for maximum strength (using heavy weights) then he/she would only be capable of expressing large amounts of force and would not be able to do this quickly (they would not improve their speed of force production).
Endurance training: Peaking for a win
Specialist running journalist Andy Barber talks to top endurance coach Nick Anderson
Our understanding of the physiology of running is increasing all the time. Participation in running and large road races in the UK has risen, but winning times are not significantly improving. This implies that improved training knowledge and understanding is not reaching the training routines of most runners.
The importance of threshold training
Nick believes that runners don’t understand the need for threshold running and don’t spend enough time running at threshold – this is running at 80-85% of maximum heart rate (HRMax). Instead the coach believes that they spend a lot of less productive time running at 70-75% HRMax. And he sees too much high end anaerobic training done – quicker than 85% and up above 90% of HRMax.
Nick says the impact of these training flaws are obvious on the runners’ performance, "They are always tiring in the second half of their races, they are never fully recovered from their harder sessions, they can’t glue together interval after interval and they can’t run quick races"
Maximise your threshold
So what does Nick recommend? The coach has a strong belief in the need for running at ‘threshold’ (or the lactate turn point), the pace around which blood lactate levels go from being relatively stable to accumulating rapidly. “I believe the athletes should be doing blocks of threshold training that incorporate sessions of continuous running at threshold every week (this is because) … at threshold you don’t have such high lactate levels and the damage to the muscles is less, as the contractions are not as hard, so you can do it more regularly. If you increase the volume of work at this pace you are able to run faster for longer.”
Simple Sports Science - Training for Speed
Fast-twitch muscle fibres
Fast-twitch muscle fibres contract two to three times faster than slow-twitch muscle fibres. They have a ‘twitch rate’ of 30-70 twitches per second. These fibres are also known as white, or type II fibres. There are two types of fast-twitch fibre - Type IIa and Type IIbType IIa or ‘intermediate’ fast-twitch fibres are also termed, ‘fast oxidative glycolytic’ (FOG), because of their ability to display, when subject to the relevant training stimuli, a relatively high capacity to contract under conditions of aerobic or anaerobic energy production. This means they are relatively enduring and contribute to longer-lasting sports activities, such as 400 and 800m running, and tennis rallies.Type IIb fibres are the turbo charger muscle fibres. These fibres are also known as ‘fast glycogenolytic’ (FG) fibres. They rely, almost exclusively, on the immediate energy system to fire them up. Fast-twitch muscle fibre is thicker than slow-twitch fibre. And it’s these fibres that are primarily responsible for increases in muscle size when subject to the relevant training stimuli. Activating fast-twitch motor units is the key to improved strength, speed and power
Correctly and consistently training fast-twitch fibre is the key to improved strength, speed and power. Paradoxically, these fibres are quite lazy. They need to be prodded into action by considerable mental input. This ups the flow of electrical impulses to the motor units and literally switches them on. If you are really focused and in ‘the zone’ the flow of electrical impulses from the brain can be virtually continuous – this continuity results in target muscles being unable to relax, which in turn results in increased muscular tension and power capability. However, it should be noted that extreme levels of this ‘neuronal stimulation’ can lead to impaired sports performance. To clarify: if a golfer were to become overly aggressive in an attempt to drive the ball as far as they could from the tee, a poor stroke usually results. This is the result of increased tension and its impairment of skill.
Exercise tip of the week
Isotonic (exercises with movement) core exercises
Although these exercises are isotonic you must not swing or rock forward or backward when performing them. Instead, focus on initiating and completing the movement with your core muscles – this will ensure maximum muscle fibre recruitment. Lift and lower to a slow 3/4 count.
4) Active straight leg raise
Overview: Requires a strong static contraction of the abdominals to stabilise the lumbar spine against the load of the legs. It also requires a good active range of motion of the hamstrings.
Level: Intermediate/advanced
Muscles targeted:Rectus abdominisAbdominal wallHip flexors
Technique: Lie on your back with knees bent. Set your lumbar spine in neutral and brace your abs. Lift one leg up straight into the air and ensure that your back does not move. Lift the other leg up, again keeping your back in place (if the back cannot be stabilised during this movement, the exercise is too advanced for you, and more static transverse stability control work will be needed first). Keeping one leg in the air, slowly lower the other down to the floor. Only go as far as you can, until you feel the lumbar spine start to move. Placing your fingers under your back will help you to gauge when this happens. Keep bracing the abs and then lift your leg slowly back up. Repeat with your other leg.
Perform: 5-10 reps, alternating legs over 2-4 sets.
Focus on Upper Body Power
Upper body power is crucial for optimum performance in numerous sports. The arms and torso both generate and control power. A rugby hand off or boxing punch are obvious examples of the former, whilst the latter takes a little more explaining.
When performing a sports skill the torso acts as a transmission – controlling the forces that are generated. For example, if a sprinter does not have strong and relevantly conditioned abdominal and back muscles then power will be wasted in lateral movements as the athlete powers down the track. Additionally a weak and non-specifically conditioned core will reduce the risk of injury.
In the short video taster you’ll see a snap shot of upper body sports specific exercises aimed specifically – though not exclusively - at developing increased hitting and punching power:1) The high pulley cable chop2) The wrist curl3) The plyometric press-up 4) The medicine ball, wall chest passThese exercises display the range of conditioning exercises that can be applied to the pursuit of improved hitting, throwing and punching power, using fixed and free weights, body weight and medicine balls.You could combine the exercises into a single workout – suggested repetitions and loadings are provided for each exercise if you chose this option.
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